Cults & Minor Religions

by Patrick Zukeran-

Three major religions that shape East Asia are Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. There is a saying that Chinese wear the hat of Confucianism for daily life, Daoist robes for religious ceremonies, and Buddhist sandals for entering the next life.¹ This essay will present a brief summary and Biblical appraisal of Confucianism and Taoism. Confucianism is a pragmatic philosophy while Taoism is more mystical. Confucianism focuses on the relationships in society while Taoism focuses on the individual.

Confucius and Lao Tzu both lived during the Chou Dynasty (1100 BC—256 BC). At that time the land was divided among feudal lords. The moral and social order was in a state of decay. Confucius and Lao Tzu strove to promote their teachings, which they felt would restore order in China. There are several intriguing stories of the meetings between the two great scholars.

Confucius

The Life of Confucius

Confucius is considered the greatest of Eastern philosophers. His writings, The Five Classics and The Four Books were standard curriculum in Chinese education for centuries. There are a variety of accounts regarding his life, but there are some facts upon which historians agree: (1) Confucius was born in northern China in 550 B.C.; (2) he believed that the needed reform in China would come through educating the leaders in the classics and his philosophy; and (3) he sought a political position of influence, from which he could implement his principles.

Tradition teaches that Confucius served in several government positions, but he eventually resigned and devoted his final years to teaching and writing until his death in 479 B.C. Following his death, his disciples were able to gain significant positions in government. They modified his teachings, and centuries later Confucianism became the official religion of China. The values he espoused—education, family loyalty, work ethic, value of traditions, conformity to traditional standards, honoring of ancestors, and unquestioning obedience to superiors— remain entrenched in Asian culture.

There is much to appreciate regarding the life and teachings of Confucius. Christians would agree on many aspects of his teachings on ethics, government responsibility, and social conduct.

Basic Confucian Doctrines

Confucianism, as taught by its founder, is not a religion in the traditional sense; rather, it is an ethical code. Confucius lived in a culture steeped in the Chinese animistic folk religion that emphasized ancestor worship. However, Confucius avoided spiritual issues. He believed in spirits and the supernatural but showed little interest in them. Confucius stated, “To devote oneself earnestly to one’s duty to humanity, and while respecting the spirits, to keep aloof from them, may be called wisdom.”² He was humanistic, rationalistic, and pragmatic in his thinking. The answer to the cultural and social problems was found in humanity itself, not in anything supernatural. Man is sufficient to attain the ideal character through education, self-effort, and reflection. The goal of life is to live a good moral life. After the death of Confucius, Confucianism evolved and combined with traditional Chinese religions and Buddhism to provide a spiritual component.

Principle of Li. Confucianism espouses three key principles, the first of which is the principle of Li. The term Li has several meanings and is often translated as “propriety,” “reverence,” “courtesy,” “ritual” or “the ideal standard of conduct.” It is what Confucius believed to be the ideal standard of religious, moral, and social conduct.³

Principle of Jen. The second key concept is the principle of Jen. It is the fundamental virtue of Confucian teaching. Jen is the virtue of goodness and benevolence. It is expressed through recognition of value and concern for others.⁴ In the Analects, Confucius summarizes the principle of Jen in the statement which is often called the silver rule: “Never do to others what you would not like them to do to you.”⁵ Li provides the structure for social relationships, and Jen provides moral guidance.

Chun- Tzu. The third important concept is Chun-Tzu, the idea of the true gentleman. It is the man who lives the highest ethical standards. The gentleman displays five virtues: self-respect, generosity, sincerity, persistence, and benevolence.⁶

Nature of Man. Confucian philosophy is built on the foundational belief in the goodness of human nature. The Analects state, “The Master said, ‘Is goodness indeed so far away? If we really wanted goodness, we should find that it was at our side.’”⁷ He further taught that all individuals are capable of attaining the highest virtue.⁸ Confucian disciple Mencius further develops this: “Man’s nature is naturally good just as water naturally flows downward.”⁹ This innate goodness could be developed and actualized through education, selfreflection, and discipline. If all men would live by the principles of Li and Jen and strive to the character of the true gentleman, justice and harmony would rule the empire.

Mandate of Heaven. This refers to the moral order established by heaven. The just rule, and the virtuous man lives in accord with this moral order. Some scholars believe Confucius’ use of the term reveals he was referring at times to a supreme being.¹⁰

Biblical Critique
There is much in the teachings of Confucius that I have found commendable. His moral values often parallel those taught in the Bible. The Bible teaches that we are created in the image of God, and, therefore, we reflect His moral character. His moral law code is embedded on our hearts (Rom. 2). This accounts for the parallels in ethics found in many religions and cultures. However, there are some significant differences, and, I believe, deficiencies within Confucian philosophy.

First, Confucianism falls short as a comprehensive life view because it fails to address several key issues. The Confucian system does not answer key questions such as, “Why does the universe exist?” “What explains its origin?,” “What is the meaning of mankind’s existence in the universe?,” and “What happens after death?” These are universal questions that must be addressed. Man is a spiritual being, and this philosophy leaves one spiritually void. The Bible teaches that God has “set eternity in the heart of men… (Eccl. 3:11). The longing for spiritual answers is a universal need. For this reason, Confucian philosophy eventually combined with Chinese folk religion and Buddhism.

Second, Confucius taught there was an overarching morality and will called the “mandate of heaven” which guides the universe. Whether he was referring to the impersonal moral principle or a supreme being, he believed one could not communicate with heaven.¹¹ The Bible teaches that we can have a relationship with the one who established the mandate of heaven. God is involved with creation and has made the way for a relationship with Him possible through His son (John 3:16).

Third, Confucius built his philosophy on the belief that man is basically good. However, despite this, Confucius honestly admitted that no one had attained the level of the true gentleman.

Confucius stated, “I for my part have never yet seen one who really cared for goodness, nor one who really abhorred wickedness.”¹² He said of himself, “…the Ways of the true gentleman are three. I myself have met with success in none of them.”¹³ If man is good by nature, we must ask why we cannot attain what should be natural to us.

The Bible is built on a contrasting view of man. It teaches that man is created in the image of God but fallen in sin and in rebellion toward God. Therefore, his natural tendency is to disobey the commandments of God and is driven to please himself. Paul states in Romans 7:18, “I have the desire to do good, but I cannot carry it out.”

Good education is a positive step toward helping man change, but it falls short. Man is in need of a heart transformation. Life transformation occurs when a person enters into a personal relationship with God and God the Holy Spirit transforms one’s nature through His indwelling and enabling power.

Taoism

Historical Background

The founder of Taoism was Lao Tzu (604-517 B.C.), although historians question whether he was an actual historical figure. The name Lao Tzu means “the old master.”¹⁴ The story of Lao Tzu teaches that he was saddened by the moral and social decay of society and his people’s disinterest in pursuing the path of virtue. Discouraged, he headed west to abandon civilization. As he was leaving China, the border guard perceived that he was a wise teacher and begged him to write down his teachings for the benefit of society. Lao Tzu agreed and after three days presented his teachings in his work called theu Tao Te Ching, which means “The Book of the Way.”¹⁵

This foundational work of Taoism contains eighty-one brief chapters of wise sayings and teachings. The heart of its message is instruction on understanding the Tao (pronounced “Dow”) and how one is to align oneself to live in harmony with the Tao. When individuals live yielding to the Tao, there is harmony; when individuals live resisting the Tao, there is conflict. Following Lao Tzu was Taoism’s second most important figure, Chuang Tzu (399-295 B.C.),who developed Lao Tzu’s ideas.

Eventually, the folk religions of China began to blend with Taoism leading to what is known as religious Taoism. This form of Taoism seeks to make use of the forces of the Tao to attain power and immortality.¹⁶ Philosophical or classical Taoism seeks to bring one in harmony with the Tao present in individuals, while religious Taoism seeks to increase the Tao force in one’s life through various methods.

Lao Tzu and Confucius

Lao Tzu believed that Confucius’ system would fail because Confucius sought to impose morality on the people. He assumed that people’s natural reaction would be to rebel against such authoritarian practice. Lao Tzu believed the way to harmony was found in individuals aligning themselves with the Tao. Since the Tao is the order of nature and man’s natural inclination is to follow the Tao, a good ruler will not impose his morality on people but rather provide the freedom for people to embrace their true inner self, which would lead them to follow the Tao.¹⁷

Basic Doctrines

The Tao. Tao means “way.” It refers to the essence of the universe. It is considered unknowable and beyond description. The opening verses of the Tao Te Ching state, “The tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao. The name that can be named is not the eternal name. The unnamable is the eternally real.”

Although Lao Tzu taught that the Tao is indescribable, throughout his work he provides descriptions of the Tao. The Tao is eternal and the source of all things. Eventually all things will return to the Tao. The Tao is what unites all things in a harmonious union. According to Lao Tzu, the best analogy to the Tao is water, for it nourishes all and gently guides all with its current. In the same way, the Tao guides the universe; it provides for all creatures, but it does not force its way on individuals. The Tao is the “reality that gives rise to the universe.”¹⁸ The Tao is present in all things, and the goal of every individual should be to become one with the Tao.

The Te. A second important principle is the Te. The Te refers to our nature, individuality and uniqueness. It also refers to our connection with the Tao. As we are true to our own nature, we naturally move closer in harmony with the Tao. Taoism teaches that we must accept the Te in individuals and in all things and not seek to use external pressure to force another’s Te to conform to a desired behavior.¹⁹

Wu-Wei . A third principle is the Wu-wei, which is the principle of inactivity. This does not imply laziness. Wu-wei teaches that one cannot impose his will or way on others but must instead allow the Tao to take its course in the lives of each person. The goal in philosophical Taoism is to remove hindrances, such as incorrect thinking and emotions, that hinder one’s union with the Tao and allow the Tao to guide each individual. Lao Tzu wrote, “Practice not-doing, and everything will fall into place.”²⁰ According to Lao Tzu, since following the Tao is one’s natural inclination, the fewer restrictions people have, the more likely individuals will yield to the Tao.

yin/yang. The Yin/Yang principle teaches that there exist two universal and opposing eternal forces that balance one another in a harmonious fashion. One does not overcome the other; rather, the two work together, creating a perfect balance. The well recognized symbol of yin/yang is a circle within which two curved teardrops flow into one another. One is white, and the other is black. Neither overcomes the other; rather, they rotate in an eternal motion. Lao Tzu wrote, “The ten thousand things carry [at their backs] the yin and embrace [in front] the yang; the blending of the energy of these two, they achieve harmony.”²¹ Examples of such opposing forces are:

Female (Yin) and Male (Yang) Cold and Hot
Good and Evil
Death and Life
Dark and Light
Negative and Positive.

Taoism embraces a moral relativism since the forces are not seen as detrimental, but necessary and complimentary for harmony. Huston Smith states, “Another feature of Taoism is its notion of relativity of all values and, as its correlative, the identity of opposites…. All values and concepts then, are ultimately relative to the mind that entertains them”²² Chapter 5 of the Tao Te Ching states, “The Tao doesn’t take sides; it gives birth to both good and evil.”

Biblical Critique

I appreciate much of Taoism’s teachings. There are many virtues Christians and Taoists share. For example, chapter 49 of the Tao Te Ching reads like the beatitudes and emphasizes the values of humility, contentment, concern and self-sacrifice for others. As explained earlier, the similarities in ethics are the result of being created in the image of God. Therefore, we reflect His moral character and His law is within all men (Rom. 2).

Despite the similarities in moral values, there are considerable differences. First, both Confucius and Lao Tzu believed in the goodness of human nature. Lao Tzu taught that since the Tao resides within all people, their natural inclination will be to walk in harmony with the Tao. Taoist scholar John Wu writes, “Whereas Confucius counseled his people to labor untiringly for the welfare and dignity of man in society, Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu on the other hand cautioned them against excessive interference. In their view, the urge to change what by nature is already good only increases the sum-total of unhappiness.”²³

The Bible teaches that man is sinful by nature. Taoism’s goal, which encourages individuals to follow their natural inclination, is to leave people to the old struggle between the moral conscience and sin nature. It also seems unreasonable that an impersonal force that does not clearly distinguish between good and evil (yin/yang principle) can lead people to a virtuous path.

In addition, Taoism does not deal with the issue of sin because it does not acknowledge sin. Taoism scholar Stephen Mitchell writes, “Unencumbered by any concept of sin, the Master does not see evil as a force to resist, but simply as an opaqueness, a state of self –absorption which is in disharmony with the universal process…”²⁴ The Bible teaches that sin is the source of conflict and disharmony in creation. A system that does not acknowledge sin is a system that cannot resolve the problem of mankind.

Third, contradiction is a sign of error, and Taoism presents several contradictory premises. First, Lao Tzu states that the Tao cannot be described. However, Lao Tzu and Taoist scholars write works describing the Tao. One must know the Tao in order to explain what the Tao is like, and any teaching regarding the Tao is an attempt, in part, to describe it. This in itself contradicts the premise that the Tao cannot be known or described by language.

Fourth, Taoism embraces moral relativism.²⁵ According to the Yin/Yang principle, good and evil, life and death, etc., are necessary and eternal balancing forces. Neither force is an evil that must be overcome. If this is the case, how does one define virtue and right moral conduct? Lao Tzu spoke against war, greed, and pride. However, what makes these things wrong? It appears there is a moral law code in Taoism, and there is the desire to overcome evil.

Fifth, the Tao is impersonal. Yet we must ask, “How does an impersonal force make conscious, intelligent, moral, and emotional beings?” According to the principle of analogy, an effect must be similar to its cause. Norman Geisler states, “like produces like because a cause communicates itself to the effect. The Cause of being must be a Being. For it cannot give what it has not got; it cannot produce reality it does not possess.” ²⁶ It is unreasonable to conclude that being comes from non-being. It is more reasonable to conclude being creates another being.

In chapter 62 of the Tao Te Ching, Lao Tzu teaches that one of the facets most treasured of the Tao is forgiveness. However, forgiveness is given and received by personal beings. How does an impersonal force like the Tao grant forgiveness? Also, if there is no concept of sin, what is it that requires forgiveness? Dean Halverson points out that “forgiveness means a moral standard has been broken. But the Tao is beyond such moral distinctions!”²⁷

The evidence in the universe points to God being a personal being. The evidence from the design in the universe points to intelligence. The universal moral law displayed by all people points to a moral creator. Even Taoist’s teachings give the Tao personal characteristics.

Conclusion
Both Confucianism and Taoism provide valuable moral teachings that have positively influenced Asian cultures. The works of Confucius and Lao Tzu have been some of the most influential in history and are worthy of our study. However, they present a false understanding of human nature and God; moreover, they fail to address the critical issue of sin. Therefore, they cannot provide transformation of human nature, nor can they provide forgiveness of sin and a relationship with God.

Patrick Zukeran (D.Min.) is a research associate with Probe Ministries (www.probe.org). He hosts the radio talk show Evidence and Answers (www.evidenceandanswers.org), and is the coauthor (with Norman Geisler) of The Apologetics of Jesus (Baker).

NOTES
¹Gerald McDermott, The Baker Pocket Guide to World Religions (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2008), 66.

² Analects of Confucius, trans: Author Waley (New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 1992), 6.20.

³ John Noss, A History of the World’s Religions (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Inc., 1999), 290-1.
⁴ Analects, 13.9.
⁵ Analects, 15.23.
⁶ Analects, 17.6.
⁷ Analects, 7.9.
⁸ Analects, 4.6.
⁹ Mencius XI:2, trans. David Hinton, (Washington D.C.: Counterpoint, 1998), 197.
¹⁰ Fung Yu-lan, A History of Chinese Philosophy (Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1983), 57-8.

¹¹ Analects, 17.19.

¹² Analects, 4.6.
¹³ Analects, 14.30.
¹⁴ Tao Te Ching, trans. Stephen Mitchell, (New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1988), vii.
¹⁵ Ibid, vii.

¹⁶ Laurence G. Thompson, Chinese Religion: An Introduction (Belmont, CA: Dickenson Publishing Company, 1969), 89.

¹⁷ Dean Halverson, The Compact Guide to the World Religions (Minneapolis, MN: Bethany House Publishers, 1996), 217-8.
¹⁸ Stephan Schuhmacher and Gert Woerner, ed., The Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 1994), 356. ¹⁹ Halverson, 221.
²⁰ Tao Te Ching, ch. 3.
²¹ Tao Te Ching, ch. 42.
²² Huston Smith, The World’s Religions (San Francisco: Harper Collins Publishers, 1991), 214-5.

²³ Tao Te Ching, trans. John C. H. Wu, (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 1989), x-xi.
²⁴ Tao Te Ching, trans. Stephen Mitchell, ix.

²⁵ Huston Smith, 214-5.
²⁶ Norman Geisler, Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1999), 17.
²⁷ Halverson, 229.

(First published in Areopagus Journal Vol. 9 No. 3 – Eastern Religions)